Severe sepsis in the ICU is often missing in hospital discharge codes.

BACKGROUND: Different International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-based code abstraction strategies have been used when studying the epidemiology of severe sepsis. The aim of this study was to compare three previously used ICD code abstraction strategies to the American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine (ACCP/SCCM) consensus criteria for severe sepsis, in a setting of intensive care patients. METHODS: All patients (≥ 18 years of age) with severe sepsis according to the ACCP/SCCM criteria registered in the Swedish Intensive Care Registry (2005-2009) were included in the study. Using the Swedish National Patient Register, we investigated whether these patients fulfilled an ICD code compilation for severe sepsis at hospital discharge. RESULTS: Overall, 9271 patients with severe sepsis were registered in the Swedish Intensive Care Registry. A majority of these patients (55.4%) were discharged from the hospital with ICD codes that did not correspond to any of the ICD code compilations. A minority of patients (10.3%) were discharged with ICD codes corresponding to all three code abstraction strategies applied. Overall, the proportion of patients discharged with ICD codes corresponding to the criteria of Angus et al. was 15.1%, to the criteria of Flaatten was 39.8%, and to the criteria of Martin et al. was 16.0%. CONCLUSIONS: A majority of patients with severe sepsis according to the ACCP/SCCM criteria were not discharged with ICD codes corresponding to the ICD code abstraction strategies; thus, the abstraction strategies did not identify the correct patients.

Identifying opportunities to increase organ donation after brain death. An observational study in Sweden 2009-2014.

BACKGROUND: There is a wide gap between the number of organ donors and patients on waiting lists for transplantation. The purpose of this Swedish nationwide study of the critical pathway for organ donation after brain death (DBD) was to identify missed opportunities for organ donation. METHODS: We performed a prospective, observational study of all ICU deaths in Sweden from Jan 1, 2009 to Dec 31, 2014. The protocol structure followed the critical pathway for organ donation, which was developed and tested during 2008. We analysed differences in donation incidences between healthcare providers (counties) and patient characteristics using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. RESULTS: The number of DBD per million population (pmp) was 14.9, varying almost 10-fold from 4.3 to 40.6 DBD pmp between counties. Regional variation in DBD decreased when we assigned the donor to the place of residence (from 6.9 to 27.7 DBD pmp). Women were more likely to become donors compared to men [crude odds ratio (OR) 1.60, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.38-1.85, P < 0.001]. The increased likelihood remained after adjusting for age, comorbidity, and main diagnostic categories (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.25-1.77, P < 0.001). An end-of-life decision was found in 50.9% of possible organ donors. CONCLUSIONS: Regional differences in DBD were considerable, and women were more likely to become donors than men. There is a need for increased awareness of the potential for organ donation as an integral part of end-of-life clinical care. In-depth analysis of these differences may reveal opportunities for action that could lead to increased DBD.

A generic simulation model for planning critical care resource requirements.

Intensive care capacity planning based on factual or forecasted mean admission numbers and mean length of stay without taking non-linearity and variability into account is fraught with error. Simulation modelling may allow for a more accurate assessment of capacity needs. We developed a generic intensive care simulation model using data generated from anonymised patient records of all admissions to four different hospital intensive care units. The model was modified and calibrated stepwise to identify important parameters and their values to obtain a match between model predictions and actual data. The most important characteristic of the final model was the dependency of admission rate on actual occupancy. Occupancy, coverage and transfers of the final model were found to be within 2% of the actual data for all four simulated intensive care units. We have shown that this model could provide accurate decision support for planning critical care resource requirements.

What determines immediate use of invasive ventilation in patients with COPD?

BACKGROUND: The choice between non-invasive ventilation (NIV) and invasive ventilation in patients with an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) may be irrational. The aim of this study was to examine those patient characteristics, and circumstances deemed important in the choice made between NIV and invasive ventilation in the intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: We first examined 95 admissions of AECOPD patients on nine ICUs and identified variables associated with invasive ventilation. Thereafter, a questionnaire was sent to ICU personnel to study the relative importance of different factors with a possible influence on the decision to use invasive ventilation at once. RESULTS: Univariable analysis showed that increasing age [odds ratio (OR) 1.06 per year] and increasing body mass index (BMI) (OR 1.11 per kg/m(2) ) were associated with immediate invasive ventilation, while there was no such association with arterial blood gases or breath rate. BMI was the only factor that remained associated with immediate invasive ventilation in the multivariable analysis [OR 1.12 (95% confidence interval 1.03-1.23) kg/m(2) ]. Ranking of responses to the questionnaire showed that consciousness, respiratory symptoms and blood gases were powerful factors determining invasive ventilation, whereas high BMI and age were ranked low. Non-patient-related factors were also deemed important (physician in charge, presence of guidelines, ICU workload). CONCLUSION: Factors other than those deemed most important in guidelines appear to have an inappropriate influence on the choice between NIV and immediate intubation in AECOPD in the ICU. These factors must be identified to further increase the appropriate use of NIV.

Need for improved antimicrobial and infection control stewardship in Vietnamese intensive care units.

OBJECTIVE: Survey of antibiotic consumption, microbial resistance and hygiene precautions in the intensive care units of three hospitals in northern Vietnam. METHODS: Observational study. Data were collected from the microbiological laboratories. Antibiotic consumption was determined based on quantities of drugs delivered from the pharmacy. A protocol to observe the application of hygiene precautions was developed and used. Bacteria were typed and tested for drug susceptibility using the disc-diffusion method. RESULTS: The mean antibiotic consumption was 811 defined daily doses per 1000 occupied bed days. The most commonly used antibiotics were third-generation cephalosporins, followed by carbapenems, amoxicillin and ampicillin. Eighty per cent of bacterial isolates were Gram-negative. The most common pathogens found in blood cultures were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas spp. were the two most frequently isolated bacteria from the respiratory tract and all other sources together. Seventy per cent of Acinetobacter species showed reduced susceptibility to imipenem, 80% to ciprofloxacin and 89% to ceftazidime. Forty-four per cent of Pseudomonas spp. showed reduced susceptibility to imipenem, 49% to ciprofloxacin and 49% to ceftazidime. Escherichia coli was fully susceptible to imipenem, but 57% of samples were resistant to both ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime. Hygiene precautions were poor, and fewer than 50% of patient contacts incorporated appropriate hand hygiene. CONCLUSION: Low antibiotic consumption, poor hygiene precautions and the high level of antibiotic resistance indicate that there is room for improvement regarding antibiotic use and infection control.

Long-term effect of the ICU-diary concept on quality of life after critical illness.

BACKGROUND: Critically ill patients often spend time in the intensive care unit (ICU) either unconscious or sedated. On recovery, they are often in a state of confusion with memory loss that may be associated with a longstanding reduction in health-related quality of life (QoL). We hypothesised that the ICU-diary concept could improve their QoL by filling in their memory gaps. METHODS: A non-randomised, prospective study in a non-academic eight-bedded general ICU. A group of patients (n=38) were selected to receive the ICU-diary concept (keeping a diary with photos while on the ICU plus a follow-up meeting) when a long and complicated course was expected. Health-related QoL at 6, 12, 24 and 36 months was compared with a group that did not receive the ICU-diary (n=224). The Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form (SF-36) was used to measure health-related QoL. Multiple regression models adjusted for age, sex, illness severity, pre-existing disease and diagnostic category was used to analyse the effects of the ICU-diary concept at 6 months, and changes over time were analysed using repeated measures MANOVA. RESULTS: Crude and adjusted scores for two dimensions of SF-36 (general health and vitality) and the physical component summary score were significantly higher at 6 months in the ICU-diary group (P<0.05) and some of the effects remained during the 3-year follow-up period (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The ICU-diary concept was associated with improved health-related QoL during the 3-year follow-up period after a critical illness. The effect of this intervention needs to be confirmed in a larger randomised study.

Characteristics and long-term outcome of acute exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: an analysis of cases in the Swedish Intensive Care Registry during 2002-2006.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represents a major and growing health problem. The purpose of this work was to examine characteristics, resource use and long-term survival in patients with an acute exacerbation of COPD that were admitted to Swedish intensive care units (ICU). METHODS: Patient characteristics at admission, length of stay (LOS), resource use and outcome were collected for admissions due to COPD during 2002-2006 in the database of the Swedish Intensive Care Registry. Vital status was secured for 99.6% of the patients. Kaplan-Meier survival estimates were computed for index admissions only. RESULTS: We identified 1009 patients with 1199 admissions due to COPD (1.3% of all intensive care admissions). The mean (SD) age was 70.2 (9.1) years and the proportion of women were 61.5%. Mean (SD) Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II probability of hospital death was 0.31 (0.19). Median LOS was 28 (interquartile range 52) h. The number of readmissions was 190 during the 5-year study. Older patients had fewer readmissions (OR 0.96, 95% CI: 0.95-0.98/year increase in age). ICU mortality was 7.3% (87 of 1199 admissions) and 30-day mortality was 26.0% (262 of 1009 index admissions). Median survival was 14.5 months and 31% of patients survived 3 years after the index admission. CONCLUSIONS: Short (30 days) and long-term survival is poor in acute COPD. Readmissions are frequent reflecting the severity of this chronic illness. Patients are less likely to be readmitted with increasing age which may be due to withholding of further intensive care.

Low antibiotic resistance rates in Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp but not in Enterobacter spp and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a prospective observational study in 14 Swedish ICUs over a 5-year period.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care units (ICUs) are hot zones for emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance because of frequent invasive procedures, antibiotic usage and transmission of bacteria. We report prospective data on antibiotic use and bacterial resistance from 14 academic and non-academic ICUs, participating in the ICU-STRAMA programme 1999-2003. METHODS: The quantity of antibiotics delivered to each ICU was calculated as defined daily doses per 1,000 occupied bed days (DDD(1,000)). Specimens for culture were taken on clinical indications and only initial isolates were considered. Species-related breakpoints according to the Swedish Reference Group for Antibiotics were used. Antibiotic resistance was defined as the sum of intermediate and resistant strains. RESULTS: Mean antibiotic use increased from 1,245 DDD(1,000) in 1999 to 1,510 DDD(1,000) in 2003 (P = 0.11 for trend). Of Staphylococcus aureus, 0-1.8% were methicillin resistant (MRSA). A presumptive extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) phenotype was found in <2.4% of Escherichia coli, based on cefotaxime susceptibility, except a peak in 2002 (4.6%). Cefotaxime resistance was found in 2.6-4.9% of Klebsiella spp. Rates of resistance among Enterobacter spp. to cefotaxime (20-33%) and among Pseudomonas aeruginosa to imipenem (22-33%) and ciprofloxacin (5-21%) showed no time trend. CONCLUSION: MRSA and cefotaxime-resistant E. coli and Klebsiella spp strains were few despite high total antibiotic consumption. This may be the result of a slow introduction of resistant strains into the ICUs, and good infection control. The cause of imipenem and ciprofloxacin resistance in P. aeruginosa could reflect the increased consumption of these agents plus spread of resistant clones.

Inhaled and intravenous corticosteroids both attenuate chlorine gas-induced lung injury in pigs.

BACKGROUND: The accidental release of chlorine gas is a constant threat in urban areas. The purpose of this randomized, blinded, controlled experiment was to examine the effects of post-injury administration of inhaled or intravenous corticosteroid in chlorine gas-injured pigs followed for 23 h. METHODS: Anaesthetized, ventilated pigs (n = 24) in the prone position were exposed to chlorine gas (400 parts per million in air) (1160 mg/m3) for 15 min, then randomly allocated to receive inhaled budesonide (BUD) and intravenous placebo, intravenous betamethasone (BETA) and inhaled placebo or inhaled and intravenous placebo. Haemodynamics, gas exchange and lung mechanics were evaluated for 23 h after exposure to chlorine gas. RESULTS: Airway and pulmonary artery pressures increased and arterial oxygenation fell sharply (from 13.5 +/- 0.8 to 6.7 +/- 0.9 kPa, P < 0.001) after chlorine gas exposure. These immediate changes were followed by a gradual improvement over 5-7 h to a stable level of dysfunction for the rest of the experiment in placebo animals. Arterial oxygen tension, pulmonary vascular resistance and airway pressure recovered faster and more completely in the budesonide and betamethasone groups than in the placebo group (P < 0.01). Lung wet weight to dry weight ratios were greater in the placebo group than in the budesonide and betamethasone groups (6.34 +/- 0.59 vs. 5.56 +/- 0.38 and 5.53 +/- 0.54, respectively, P < 0.05). There was a trend towards lower histological injury scores compared with placebo in animals that received budesonide (P = 0.05) or betamethasone (P = 0.07). CONCLUSION: Treatment of chlorine gas lung injury with nebulized budesonide or intravenous betamethasone had similar positive effects on recovery of lung function.

Multicentre study of validity and interrater reliability of the modified Nursing Care Recording System (NCR11) for assessment of workload in the ICU.

BACKGROUND: Reliable assessment of nursing workload is necessary for the quantitative approach to staffing of intensive care units. The Nursing Care Recording System (NCR11) scores both the nursing contribution to patient care and those related to medical procedures. The purpose of the present work was to compare NCR11 scoring with the Therapeutic Intervention Scoring System (TISS) and Nine Equivalents of Nurse Manpower use Score (NEMS) and to examine the interrater reliability of NCR11 scoring. METHODS: Bias and precision of workload scores (NCR11 vs. TISS or NEMS) were assessed for 6126 consecutive admissions (23910 ICU-days) at three intensive care units. Inter-rater reliability was analyzed by having nurses at nine ICUs score workload using NCR11 for three dummy intensive care patient cases presented over a 3-year period. Variability in scoring was analyzed using the coefficient of variation. RESULTS: Agreement between NCR11 and TISS or NEMS was poor and limits of agreement were wide. Linear relationships between NCR11 and TISS or NEMS scores differed between units. Variability in NCR11 scoring decreased significantly from 10.4% to 5.9% between dummy cases 1 and 2 and remained low for patient case 3. CONCLUSION: The NCR11 does not measure the same elements of workload in the ICU as do TISS and NEMS. Inter-rater reliability with NCR11 is good, showing little variation in scoring between nurses.

Outcome of the elderly critically ill after intensive care in an era of cost containment.

BACKGROUND: Economical constraints have, in many countries, led to a reduction in provision of health care services, including care of the critically ill, after decades of expansion. We hypothesized that elderly critically ill patients may be particularly vulnerable to these changes. The purpose of the present study was to examine survival of patients > or = 75 years between 1993 and 1999 when overall staff and ICU/HDU-beds were stepwise reduced, but the nurse/bed ratio increased. METHODS: Patient demographics, reason for admission, APACHE II and TISS scores were retrieved from a prospectively collected clinical database, and 180-day mortality was secured from a national database. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the role of year of admission on outcome. RESULTS: The annual number of elderly admissions (mean 656, range 611-702) and their APACHE II-derived probability of death (mean 0.25, range 0.24-0.26) did not alter significantly during the period. For patients admitted after anesthesia and surgery, length of stay was significantly shorter (P < 0.001) and TISS points per admission were fewer (P < 0.05) at the end of the period, whereas 180-day survival remained unchanged (mean 27.5%, range 25.3-29.3%). Year of admission had no explanatory power with an odds ratio of 1.0 (95% CI 0.9-1.1) per year. CONCLUSION: Reduction of intensive care services led to shorter stay and lower TISS allocation for elderly critically ill without any significant increase in 180-day mortality.

Antibiotic prescription practices, consumption and bacterial resistance in a cross section of Swedish intensive care units.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this work was to study usage of antibiotics, its possible determinants, and patterns of bacterial resistance in Swedish intensive care units (ICUs). METHODS: Prospectively collected data on species and antibiotic resistance of clinical isolates and antibiotic consumption specific to each ICU in 1999 were analyzed together with answers to a questionnaire. Antibiotic usage was measured as defined daily doses per 1000 occupied bed days (DDD1000). RESULTS: Data were obtained for 38 ICUs providing services to a population of approximately 6 million. The median antibiotic consumption was 1257 DDD1000 (range 584-2415) and correlated with the length of stay but not with the illness severity score or the ICU category. Antibiotic consumption was higher in the ICUs lacking bedside devices for hand disinfection (2193 vs. 1214 DDD1000, p=0.05). In the ICUs with a specialist in infectious diseases responsible for antibiotic treatment the consumption pattern was different only for use of glycopeptides (58% lower usage than in other ICUs: 26 vs. 11 DDD1000,P=0.02). Only 21% of the ICUs had a written guideline on the use of antibiotics, 57% received information on antibiotic usage at least every 3 months and 22% received aggregated resistance data annually. Clinically significant antimicrobial resistance was found among Enterbacter spp. to cephalosporins and among Enterococcus spp. to ampicillin. CONCLUSIONS: Availability of hand disinfection equipment at each bed and a specialist in infectious diseases responsible for antibiotic treatment were factors that correlated with lower antibiotic consumption in Swedish ICUs, whereas patient-related factors were not associated with antibiotic usage.

Effects of prone and supine posture on cardiopulmonary function after experimental chlorine gas lung injury.

BACKGROUND: Chlorine gas may induce severe acute lung injury. Improvement of pulmonary gas exchange in patients and animals with acute lung injury nursed in the prone position was observed in recent years. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of prone and supine positions on pulmonary and cardiovascular functions following experimental chlorine gas lung injury. METHODS: Twenty anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs were exposed to chlorine gas (400 p.p.m. in air) for 20 min in the supine position, then assigned randomly to ventilation in the supine or prone positions (n=10 in each group). Hemodynamics, gas exchange, lung mechanics and oxygen transport were evaluated for 5 h. RESULTS: All animals showed severe pulmonary dysfunction immediately after chlorine gassing with a threefold increase in pulmonary vascular resistance index, a drop in arterial oxygenation (12.3+/-1.3 kPa to 5.4+/-0.7 kPa) and a fall in lung-thorax compliance (22+/-1 ml cmH2O-1 to 8+/-2 ml cmH2O-1). Venous admixture (Qs/Qt) improved in animals in the prone position while there was no change in the supine position (prone 32+/-11% vs. supine 42+/-9% at 5 h,P<0.05). Lung-thorax compliance improved significantly with time in the prone group only (P<0.01). Oxygen delivery increased significantly in prone animals compared with animals nursed in the supine posture (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: Immediate prone positioning after chlorine gas injury not only inhibited deterioration of gas exchange but was also associated with improved pulmonary function and oxygen transport.

A prospective cohort study of 6-month mortality in a community hospital experiencing a gradual reduction in critical care services.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the effect of reduction of critical care services on admissions, resource consumption and outcome. DESIGN: Observation outcome study with analysis of patient data collected prospectively during 1993, 1995 and 1997. SETTING: High dependency and intensive care unit (HDU/ICU) of a community hospital serving a population of 168,000. The number of beds decreased from 12 (1993), to 10 (1995) and to 8 (1997) with concomitant decrease in staff. PATIENTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Three patient cohorts admitted to the HDU/ICU during 1993, 1995 and 1997. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Admissions were classified into recovery room care or critical care admissions and stratified according to workload (Levels I-IV). Illness severity scores of critical care admissions were recorded according to the APACHE II system. Mortality data were acquired from a national database. The total number of admissions to the unit did not change over the years. Length of stay decreased significantly over the years. Standardised mortality rates based on mortality within 30 days of discharge from the HDU/ICU were 1.17 (95% confidence interval 0.96-1.43) for critical care admissions during 1993, 0.86 (0.70-1.06) for 1995 and 0.98 (0.79-1.22) for 1997. Survival 180 days after discharge from the HDU/ICU did not differ significantly over the years. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that an excess of resources were used in critical care services during 1993 and 1995. Reduction of HDU/ICU beds by 30% from 7.1 to 4.8 beds/100,000 was not associated with increased 6-month mortality of the patients admitted.

Use of a personal diary written on the ICU during critical illness.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the use of a diary as an aid in debriefing patients and relatives following critical illness. DESIGN: Observation study. SETTING: Intensive care unit of a 500-bed hospital. PATIENTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-one critically ill patients and their relatives. METHOD: A daily account of the patient's progress was written in everyday language by nursing staff, photographs were added as necessary. The booklet was given to the patient or a relative at a follow-up appointment 2 weeks after discharge from the unit. A standard questionnaire was mailed 6 months later, responses were analyzed by an independent observer. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: All diaries had been read by survivors (n = 41) or relatives (n = 10), 51% of the diaries had been read more than 10 times. Comments in the questionnaires were graded as very positive (39%), positive (28%) and neutral (33%). CONCLUSIONS: A detailed narrative of the patient's stay is a useful tool in the debriefing process following intensive care.

[Ventilation in ARDS: respirator, prone position, NO or artificial lung]. / Ventilation vid ARDS: respirator, bukläge, NO eller konstgjord lunga?

This review discusses the treatment of impaired gas exchange in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) using conventional ventilation, the open lung approach, prone position, nitric oxide (NO) inhalation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). It is concluded that ventilation with high inspiratory pressures or volumes should be avoided, and that the open lung approach should be used as the first step. If this does not lead to satisfactory results, prone positioning is recommended, and if life-threatening hypoxemia persists, ECMO could be considered. NO inhalation is not recommended.

Effects of inhalation of corticosteroids immediately after experimental chlorine gas lung injury.

BACKGROUND: To assess the effects of treatment with nebulized corticosteroids immediately after chlorine gas injury. METHODS: Eighteen anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs were exposed to chlorine gas (140 ppm for 10 minutes) and observed for 6 hours. Nine pigs were treated with nebulized beclomethasone-dipropionate 20 microg/kg (BDP group), and nine pigs were given no treatment (control group). RESULTS: All animals developed severe pulmonary dysfunction. The initial decrease in PaO2 was similar in both groups, but BDP-treated animals improved whereas control animals deteriorated (p < 0.005; analysis of variance). Pulmonary vascular resistance increased in both groups but less in the BDP group (p < 0.01). Lung-thorax compliance was better preserved in the BDP group (p < 0.01), and oxygen delivery was significantly better in the BDP group (p < 0.01). One animal died in the BDP group, as did three animals in the control group. CONCLUSION: Immediate treatment with nebulized BDP improved pulmonary and cardiovascular function after experimental chlorine gas injury.

Surveillance of antibiotic resistance in ICUs in southeastern Sweden. ICU Study Group of the South East of Sweden.

BACKGROUND: A study was designed to assess a computer-based program for continuous registration of antibiotic resistance, statistics concerning severity of illness, and consumption of antibacterial drugs. METHODS: The frequency of antibiotic resistance among bacteria in eight ICUs in southeastern Sweden was investigated yearly from 1995 through 1997. The antibiotic consumption in the ICUs was registered as defined daily doses (DDD) and compared to severity of illness (APACHE-II scores). RESULTS: There was a statistically significant increase in ampicillin resistance among Enterococcus spp. between 1996 and 1997, which was due to a shift from Enterococcus faecalis to Enterococcus faecium. A high prevalence of resistance among coagulase-negative staphylococci to oxacillin (approximately 70%), ciprofloxacin (approximately 50%), fucidic acid (approximately 50%) and netilmicin (approximately 30%) was seen in all ICUs during the whole study period. There was a statistically significant increase in ciprofloxacin resistance among Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. The resistance among Enterobacter spp. to cefotaxime decreased but this change was not statistically significant. Efforts were made to avoid betalactam antibiotics, except carbapenems, for treatment of infections caused by Enterobacter spp. and the consumption of cephalosporins decreased whereas the consumption of carbapenems increased. The total antibiotic consumption decreased by 2.5% during the study period. There was no correlation between APACHE II scores and antibiotic consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Each ICU within a hospital ought to have a program for "on-line" antibiotic resistance surveillance of drugs used in that unit so that changes in empirical treatment can be made when there is an increase in antibiotic-resistant isolates within that unit.

Effect of furosemide on pulmonary blood flow distribution in resting and exercising horses.

We determined the spatial distribution of pulmonary blood flow (PBF) with 15-micron fluorescent-labeled microspheres during rest and exercise in five Thoroughbred horses before and 4 h after furosemide administration (0.5 mg/kg iv). The primary finding of this study was that PBF redistribution occurred from rest to exercise, both with and without furosemide. However, there was less blood flow to the dorsal portion of the lung during exercise postfurosemide compared with prefurosemide. Furosemide did alter the resting perfusion distribution by increasing the flow to the ventral regions of the lung; however, that increase in flow was abated with exercise. Other findings included 1) unchanged gas exchange and cardiac output during rest and exercise after vs. before furosemide, 2) a decrease in pulmonary arterial pressure after furosemide, 3) an increase in the slope of the relationship of PBF vs. vertical height up the lung during exercise, both with and without furosemide, and 4) a decrease in blood flow to the dorsal region of the lung at rest after furosemide. Pulmonary perfusion variability within the lung may be a function of the anatomy of the pulmonary vessels that results in a predominantly fixed spatial pattern of flow distribution.